MySQL

My MySQL tips valid-rss-rogers

 

Well, let me say if that happens because there is a logic mistake in your application. But you need to know and understand what happens in MySQL to be able to avoid the problem. 

In short the WHY of this article is to inform you about possible pitfalls and how to prevent that to cause you damage. pitfalls1

Let us start by having a short introduction to what Repeatable reads are about. Given I am extremely lazy, I am going to use (a lot) existing documentation from MySQL documentation.

Transaction isolation is one of the foundations of database processing. Isolation is the I in the acronym ACID; the isolation level is the setting that fine-tunes the balance between performance and reliability, consistency, and reproducibility of results when multiple transactions are making changes and performing queries at the same time.

InnoDB offers all four transaction isolation levels described by the SQL:1992 standard: READ UNCOMMITTED, READ COMMITTED, REPEATABLE READ, and SERIALIZABLE. The default isolation level for InnoDB is REPEATABLE READ.

  • REPEATABLE READ
    This is the default isolation level for InnoDB. Consistent reads within the same transaction read the snapshot established by the first read. This means that if you issue several plain (nonlocking) SELECT statements within the same transaction, these SELECT statements are consistent also with respect to each other.
  • READ COMMITTED
    Each consistent read, even within the same transaction, sets and reads its own fresh snapshot.

And about Consistent Non blocking reads:
A consistent read means that InnoDB uses multi-versioning to present to a query a snapshot of the database at a point in time. The query sees the changes made by transactions that committed before that point in time, and no changes made by later or uncommitted transactions. The exception to this rule is that the query sees the changes made by earlier statements within the same transaction. This exception causes the following anomaly: If you update some rows in a table, a SELECT sees the latest version of the updated rows, but it might also see older versions of any rows. If other sessions simultaneously update the same table, the anomaly means that you might see the table in a state that never existed in the database.

Ok, but what does all this mean in practice?

To understand, let us simulate this scenario:

I have a shop and I decide to grant a bonus discount to a selected number of customers that:

  • Have an active account to my shop
  • Match my personal criteria to access the bonus

My application is set to perform batch operations in a moment of less traffic and unattended. 

This includes reactivating dormant accounts that customers ask to reactivate.  

What we will do is to see what happens, by default, then see what we can do to avoid pitfalls.

The scenario

I will use 3 different connections to connect to the same MySQL 8.0.27 instance. The only relevant setting I have modified is the Innodb_timeout that I set to 50 seconds. 

  • Session 1 will simulate a process that should activate the bonus feature for the selected customers.
  • Session 2 is an independent process that reactivate the given list of customers
  • Session 3 is used to collect lock information.

For this simple test I will use the customer table in the sakila schema modified as below:

CREATE TABLE `customer` (
  `customer_id` smallint unsigned NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT,
  `store_id` tinyint unsigned NOT NULL,
  `first_name` varchar(45) NOT NULL,
  `last_name` varchar(45) NOT NULL,
  `email` varchar(50) DEFAULT NULL,
  `address_id` smallint unsigned NOT NULL,
  `active` tinyint(1) NOT NULL DEFAULT '1',
  `create_date` datetime NOT NULL,
  `last_update` timestamp NULL DEFAULT CURRENT_TIMESTAMP ON UPDATE CURRENT_TIMESTAMP,
  `bonus` int NOT NULL DEFAULT '0',
  `activate_bonus` varchar(45) NOT NULL DEFAULT '0',
  PRIMARY KEY (`customer_id`),
  KEY `idx_fk_store_id` (`store_id`),
  KEY `idx_fk_address_id` (`address_id`),
  KEY `idx_last_name` (`last_name`),
  KEY `idx_bonus` (`bonus`),
  CONSTRAINT `fk_customer_address` FOREIGN KEY (`address_id`) REFERENCES `address` (`address_id`) ON DELETE RESTRICT ON UPDATE CASCADE,
  CONSTRAINT `fk_customer_store` FOREIGN KEY (`store_id`) REFERENCES `store` (`store_id`) ON DELETE RESTRICT ON UPDATE CASCADE
) ENGINE=InnoDB AUTO_INCREMENT=600 DEFAULT CHARSET=utf8mb4 COLLATE=ut

As you can see I have added the bonus and activate_bonus fields plus the idx_bonus index.

To be able to trace the locks these are the threads ids by session:

session 1 17439
session 2 17430
session 3 17443

To collect the lock information:

SELECT 
    index_name, lock_type, lock_mode, lock_data, thread_id
FROM
    performance_schema.data_locks
WHERE
    object_schema = 'sakila'
        AND object_name = 'customer'
        AND lock_type = 'RECORD'
        AND thread_id IN (17439 , 17430)
ORDER BY index_name , lock_data DESC;

ok , ready? Let us start!

The run…

While the following steps can be done in a more compressed way, I prefer to do it in a more verbose way, to make it more human readable.

First let us set the environment:

session1 >set transaction_isolation = 'REPEATABLE-READ';
Query OK, 0 rows affected (0.07 sec)
session1 >Start Transaction;
Query OK, 0 rows affected (0.07 sec)

Then let see the list of the customers we will modify:

session1 >SELECT * FROM sakila.customer where bonus = 1 and active =1 order by last_name;
+-------------+----------+------------+-----------+-------+----------------+
| customer_id | store_id | first_name | last_name | bonus | activate_bonus |
+-------------+----------+------------+-----------+-------+----------------+
|         383 |        1 | MARTIN     | BALES     |     1 | 0              |
|         539 |        1 | MATHEW     | BOLIN     |     1 | 0              |
|         441 |        1 | MARIO      | CHEATHAM  |     1 | 0              |
|         482 |        1 | MAURICE    | CRAWLEY   |     1 | 0              |
|         293 |        2 | MAE        | FLETCHER  |     1 | 0              |
|          38 |        1 | MARTHA     | GONZALEZ  |     1 | 0              |
|         444 |        2 | MARCUS     | HIDALGO   |     1 | 0              |
|         252 |        2 | MATTIE     | HOFFMAN   |     1 | 0              |
|         256 |        2 | MABEL      | HOLLAND   |     1 | 0              |
|         226 |        2 | MAUREEN    | LITTLE    |     1 | 0              |
|         588 |        1 | MARION     | OCAMPO    |     1 | 0              |
|         499 |        2 | MARC       | OUTLAW    |     1 | 0              |
|         553 |        1 | MAX        | PITT      |     1 | 0              |
|         312 |        2 | MARK       | RINEHART  |     1 | 0              |
|          80 |        1 | MARILYN    | ROSS      |     1 | 0              |
|         583 |        1 | MARSHALL   | THORN     |     1 | 0              |
|         128 |        1 | MARJORIE   | TUCKER    |     1 | 0              |
|          44 |        1 | MARIE      | TURNER    |     1 | 0              |
|         267 |        1 | MARGIE     | WADE      |     1 | 0              |
|         240 |        1 | MARLENE    | WELCH     |     1 | 0              |
|         413 |        2 | MARVIN     | YEE       |     1 | 0              |
+-------------+----------+------------+-----------+-------+----------------+
21 rows in set (0.08 sec)

As you can see we have 21 customers fitting our criteria.
How much money is involved in this exercise?

session1 >SELECT
    ->     SUM(amount) income,
    ->     SUM(amount) * 0.90 income_with_bonus,
    ->    (SUM(amount) - (SUM(amount) * 0.90)) loss_because_bonus
    -> FROM
    ->     sakila.customer AS c
    ->         JOIN
    ->     sakila.payment AS p ON c.customer_id = p.customer_id
    ->     where active = 1 and bonus =1 ;
+---------+-------------------+--------------------+
| income  | income_with_bonus | loss_because_bonus |
+---------+-------------------+--------------------+
| 2416.23 |         2174.6070 |           241.6230 |
+---------+-------------------+--------------------+

This exercise is going to cost me ~242 dollars. Keep this number in mind.
What locks do I have at this point?

session3 >select index_name, lock_type, lock_mode,lock_data from performance_schema.data_locks where  object_schema = 'sakila' and object_name = 'customer' and lock_type = 'RECORD'  and
thread_id in (17439,17430) order by index_name, lock_data desc;
Empty set (0.00 sec)

Answer is none. 

Meanwhile we have the other process that needs to reactivate the customers:

session2 >set transaction_isolation = 'REPEATABLE-READ';
Query OK, 0 rows affected (0.00 sec)

session2 >Start Transaction;
Query OK, 0 rows affected (0.00 sec)

session2 >SELECT * FROM sakila.customer where bonus = 1 and active =0 ;
+-------------+----------+------------+-----------+-------+----------------+
| customer_id | store_id | first_name | last_name | bonus | activate_bonus |
+-------------+----------+------------+-----------+-------+----------------+
|           1 |        1 | MARY       | SMITH     |     1 | 0              |
|           7 |        1 | MARIA      | MILLER    |     1 | 0              |
|           9 |        2 | MARGARET   | MOORE     |     1 | 0              |
|         178 |        2 | MARION     | SNYDER    |     1 | 0              |
|         236 |        1 | MARCIA     | DEAN      |     1 | 0              |
|         246 |        1 | MARIAN     | MENDOZA   |     1 | 0              |
|         254 |        2 | MAXINE     | SILVA     |     1 | 0              |
|         257 |        2 | MARSHA     | DOUGLAS   |     1 | 0              |
|         323 |        2 | MATTHEW    | MAHAN     |     1 | 0              |
|         408 |        1 | MANUEL     | MURRELL   |     1 | 0              |
+-------------+----------+------------+-----------+-------+----------------+
10 rows in set (0.00 sec)

In this case the process needs to reactivate 10 users.

session2 >update sakila.customer set active = 1 where bonus = 1 and active =0 ;
Query OK, 10 rows affected (0.00 sec)
Rows matched: 10  Changed: 10  Warnings: 0
session2 >commit;
Query OK, 0 rows affected (0.00 sec)

All good, right? But before going ahead let us double check, session 1:

session1 >SELECT * FROM sakila.customer where bonus = 1 and active =1 order by last_name;
+-------------+----------+------------+-----------+-------+----------------+
| customer_id | store_id | first_name | last_name | bonus | activate_bonus |
+-------------+----------+------------+-----------+-------+----------------+
|         383 |        1 | MARTIN     | BALES     |     1 | 0              |
|         539 |        1 | MATHEW     | BOLIN     |     1 | 0              |
|         441 |        1 | MARIO      | CHEATHAM  |     1 | 0              |
|         482 |        1 | MAURICE    | CRAWLEY   |     1 | 0              |
|         293 |        2 | MAE        | FLETCHER  |     1 | 0              |
|          38 |        1 | MARTHA     | GONZALEZ  |     1 | 0              |
|         444 |        2 | MARCUS     | HIDALGO   |     1 | 0              |
|         252 |        2 | MATTIE     | HOFFMAN   |     1 | 0              |
|         256 |        2 | MABEL      | HOLLAND   |     1 | 0              |
|         226 |        2 | MAUREEN    | LITTLE    |     1 | 0              |
|         588 |        1 | MARION     | OCAMPO    |     1 | 0              |
|         499 |        2 | MARC       | OUTLAW    |     1 | 0              |
|         553 |        1 | MAX        | PITT      |     1 | 0              |
|         312 |        2 | MARK       | RINEHART  |     1 | 0              |
|          80 |        1 | MARILYN    | ROSS      |     1 | 0              |
|         583 |        1 | MARSHALL   | THORN     |     1 | 0              |
|         128 |        1 | MARJORIE   | TUCKER    |     1 | 0              |
|          44 |        1 | MARIE      | TURNER    |     1 | 0              |
|         267 |        1 | MARGIE     | WADE      |     1 | 0              |
|         240 |        1 | MARLENE    | WELCH     |     1 | 0              |
|         413 |        2 | MARVIN     | YEE       |     1 | 0              |
+-------------+----------+------------+-----------+-------+----------------+
21 rows in set (0.08 sec)

Perfect! My Repeatable Read still sees the same snapshot. Let me apply the changes:

session1 >update sakila.customer set activate_bonus=1 where bonus = 1 and active =1 ;
Query OK, 31 rows affected (0.06 sec)
Rows matched: 31  Changed: 31  Warnings: 0

Wait, what? My list reports 21 entries, but I have modified 31! And if I check the cost:

session1 >SELECT
    ->     SUM(amount) income,
    ->     SUM(amount) * 0.90 income_with_bonus,
    ->    (SUM(amount) - (SUM(amount) * 0.90)) loss_because_bonus
    -> FROM
    ->     sakila.customer AS c
    ->         JOIN
    ->     sakila.payment AS p ON c.customer_id = p.customer_id
    ->     where active = 1 and bonus =1 ;
+---------+-------------------+--------------------+
| income  | income_with_bonus | loss_because_bonus |
+---------+-------------------+--------------------+
| 3754.01 |         3378.6090 |           375.4010 |
+---------+-------------------+--------------------+

Well now the cost of this operation is 375 dollars not 242. In this case we are talking about peanuts, but guess what could be if we do something similar on thousands of users. 

Anyhow let us first:

session1 >rollback;
Query OK, 0 rows affected (0.08 sec)

And cancel the operation.

So what happened, is this a bug?

No it is not! It is how repeatable reads work in MySQL. The snapshot is relevant to the read operation, But if another session is able to write given also the absence of lock at the moment of reads, the next update operation will touch any value in the table matching the conditions. 

As shown above this can be very dangerous. But only if you don’t do the right things in the code. 

How can I prevent this from happening?

When coding, hope for the best, plan for the worse, always! Especially when dealing with databases. That approach may save you from spending nights trying to fix the impossible. 

So how can this be prevented? You have two ways, both simple, but both with positive and negative consequences.

  1. Add this simple clausole to the select statement: for share
  2. Add the other simple clausole to the select statement: for update
  3. Use Read-committed

Solution 1 is easy and clean, no other change in the code. BUT create locks, and if your application is lock sensitive this may be an issue for you.

Solution 2 is also easy, but a bit more encapsulated and locking. 

On the other hand Solution 3 does not add locks, but requires modifications in the code and it still leaves some space for problems.

Let us see them in detail.

Solution 1

Let us repeat the same steps

session1 >set transaction_isolation = 'REPEATABLE-READ';
session1 >Start Transaction;
session1 >SELECT * FROM sakila.customer where bonus = 1 and active =1 order by last_name for share;

If now we check the locks for brevity I have cut some entries and kept a few as a sample:

session3 >select index_name, lock_type, lock_mode,lock_data,thread_id from performance_schema.data_locks where
    -> object_schema = 'sakila'
    -> and object_name = 'customer'
    -> and lock_type = 'RECORD'
    -> and thread_id = 17439
    -> order by index_name, lock_data desc;
+------------+-----------+---------------+------------------------+-----------+
| index_name | lock_type | lock_mode     | lock_data              | thread_id |
+------------+-----------+---------------+------------------------+-----------+
| idx_bonus  | RECORD    | S             | supremum pseudo-record |     17439 |
| idx_bonus  | RECORD    | S             | 1, 9                   |     17439 |
<snip>
| idx_bonus  | RECORD    | S             | 1, 128                 |     17439 |
| idx_bonus  | RECORD    | S             | 1, 1                   |     17439 |
| PRIMARY    | RECORD    | S,REC_NOT_GAP | 9                      |     17439 |
<snip>
| PRIMARY    | RECORD    | S,REC_NOT_GAP | 1                      |     17439 |
+------------+-----------+---------------+------------------------+-----------+
63 rows in set (0.00 sec)

This time we can see that the select has raised a few locks all in S (shared) mode. 

For brevity I am skipping to report exactly the same results as in the first exercise.

If we go ahead and try with session 2:

session2 >set transaction_isolation = 'READ-COMMITTED';
session2 >Start Transaction;
session2 >SELECT * FROM sakila.customer where bonus = 1 and active =0 ;
session2 >update sakila.customer set active = 1 where bonus = 1 and active =0 ;
ERROR 1205 (HY000): Lock wait timeout exceeded; try restarting transaction

Here we go! Attempting to change the values in the customer table is now on hold waiting to acquire the lock. If the duration exceeds the Innodb_wait_timeout, then the execution is interrupted and the application must have a try-catch mechanism to retry the operation. This last one is a best practice that you should already have in place in your code. If not, well add it now!

At this point session 1 can proceed and complete the operations. After that and before the final commit, we will be able to observe:

+------------+-----------+---------------+------------------------+-----------+
| index_name | lock_type | lock_mode     | lock_data              | thread_id |
+------------+-----------+---------------+------------------------+-----------+
| idx_bonus  | RECORD    | S             | supremum pseudo-record |     17439 |
| idx_bonus  | RECORD    | X             | supremum pseudo-record |     17439 |
| idx_bonus  | RECORD    | S             | 1, 9                   |     17439 |
| idx_bonus  | RECORD    | X             | 1, 9                   |     17439 |
<snip>
| idx_bonus  | RECORD    | X             | 1, 1                   |     17439 |
| idx_bonus  | RECORD    | S             | 1, 1                   |     17439 |
| PRIMARY    | RECORD    | X,REC_NOT_GAP | 9                      |     17439 |
| PRIMARY    | RECORD    | S,REC_NOT_GAP | 9                      |     17439 |
<snip>|
| PRIMARY    | RECORD    | X,REC_NOT_GAP | 1                      |     17439 |
| PRIMARY    | RECORD    | S,REC_NOT_GAP | 1                      |     17439 |
+------------+-----------+---------------+------------------------+-----------+
126 rows in set (0.00 sec)

As you can see we now have two different lock types, the Shared one from the select, and the exclusive lock (X) from the update.

Solution 2

In this case we just change the kind of lock we set on the select. In solution 1 we opt for a shared lock, which allows other sessions to eventually acquire another shared lock. Here we go for an exclusive lock that will put all the other operations on hold. 

session1 >set transaction_isolation = 'REPEATABLE-READ';
session1 >Start Transaction;
session1 >SELECT * FROM sakila.customer where bonus = 1 and active =1 order by last_name for UPDATE;

If now we check the locks for brevity I have cut some entries and kept few as a sample:

session3 >select index_name, lock_type, lock_mode,lock_data,thread_id from performance_schema.data_locks where
    -> object_schema = 'sakila'
    -> and object_name = 'customer'
    -> and lock_type = 'RECORD'
    -> and thread_id = 17439
    -> order by index_name, lock_data desc;
+------------+-----------+---------------+------------------------+-----------+
| index_name | lock_type | lock_mode     | lock_data              | thread_id |
+------------+-----------+---------------+------------------------+-----------+
| idx_bonus  | RECORD    | X             | supremum pseudo-record |     17439 |
| idx_bonus  | RECORD    | X             | 1, 9                   |     17439 |
<snip>
| idx_bonus  | RECORD    | X             | 1, 128                 |     17439 |
| idx_bonus  | RECORD    | X             | 1, 1                   |     17439 |
| PRIMARY    | RECORD    | X,REC_NOT_GAP | 9                      |     17439 |
| PRIMARY    | RECORD    | X,REC_NOT_GAP | 80                     |     17439 |
<snip>
| PRIMARY    | RECORD    | X,REC_NOT_GAP | 128                    |     17439 |
| PRIMARY    | RECORD    | X,REC_NOT_GAP | 1                      |     17439 |
+------------+-----------+---------------+------------------------+-----------+
63 rows in set (0.09 sec)

In this case the kind of lock is X as exclusive, so the other operations when requesting a lock must wait for this transaction to complete.

session2 >#set transaction_isolation = 'READ-COMMITTED';
session2 >
session2 >Start Transaction;
Query OK, 0 rows affected (0.06 sec)

session2 >SELECT * FROM sakila.customer where bonus = 1 and active =0 for update;

And it will wait for N time where N is either the Innodb_lock_wait_timeout or the commit time from season 1.

Note the lock request on hold:

+------------+-----------+---------------+------------------------+-----------+
| index_name | lock_type | lock_mode     | lock_data              | thread_id |
+------------+-----------+---------------+------------------------+-----------+
| idx_bonus  | RECORD    | X             | supremum pseudo-record |     17439 |
<snip>
| idx_bonus  | RECORD    | X             | 1, 128                 |     17439 |
| idx_bonus  | RECORD    | X             | 1, 1                   |     17430 |<--
| idx_bonus  | RECORD    | X             | 1, 1                   |     17439 |
| PRIMARY    | RECORD    | X,REC_NOT_GAP | 9                      |     17439 |
<snip>
| PRIMARY    | RECORD    | X,REC_NOT_GAP | 1                      |     17439 |
+------------+-----------+---------------+------------------------+-----------+
64 rows in set (0.09 sec)

Session 2 is trying to lock exclusively the idx_bonus but cannot proceed.

Once session 1 goes ahead we have:

session1 >update sakila.customer set activate_bonus=1 where bonus = 1 and active =1 ;
Query OK, 0 rows affected (0.06 sec)
Rows matched: 21  Changed: 0  Warnings: 0

session1 >
session1 >SELECT * FROM sakila.customer where bonus = 1 and active =1 ;
+-------------+----------+------------+-----------+-------+----------------+
| customer_id | store_id | first_name | last_name | bonus | activate_bonus |
+-------------+----------+------------+-----------+-------+----------------+
|          38 |        1 | MARTHA     | GONZALEZ  |     1 | 1              |
|          44 |        1 | MARIE      | TURNER    |     1 | 1              |
|          80 |        1 | MARILYN    | ROSS      |     1 | 1              |
|         128 |        1 | MARJORIE   | TUCKER    |     1 | 1              |
|         226 |        2 | MAUREEN    | LITTLE    |     1 | 1              |
|         240 |        1 | MARLENE    | WELCH     |     1 | 1              |
|         252 |        2 | MATTIE     | HOFFMAN   |     1 | 1              |
|         256 |        2 | MABEL      | HOLLAND   |     1 | 1              |
|         267 |        1 | MARGIE     | WADE      |     1 | 1              |
|         293 |        2 | MAE        | FLETCHER  |     1 | 1              |
|         312 |        2 | MARK       | RINEHART  |     1 | 1              |
|         383 |        1 | MARTIN     | BALES     |     1 | 1              |
|         413 |        2 | MARVIN     | YEE       |     1 | 1              |
|         441 |        1 | MARIO      | CHEATHAM  |     1 | 1              |
|         444 |        2 | MARCUS     | HIDALGO   |     1 | 1              |
|         482 |        1 | MAURICE    | CRAWLEY   |     1 | 1              |
|         499 |        2 | MARC       | OUTLAW    |     1 | 1              |
|         539 |        1 | MATHEW     | BOLIN     |     1 | 1              |
|         553 |        1 | MAX        | PITT      |     1 | 1              |
|         583 |        1 | MARSHALL   | THORN     |     1 | 1              |
|         588 |        1 | MARION     | OCAMPO    |     1 | 1              |
+-------------+----------+------------+-----------+-------+----------------+
21 rows in set (0.08 sec)

session1 >SELECT      SUM(amount) income,     SUM(amount) * 0.90 income_with_bonus,    (SUM(amount) - (SUM(amount) * 0.90)) loss_because_bonus FROM     sakila.customer AS c         JOIN     sakila.payment AS p ON c.customer_id = p.customer_id     where active = 1 and bonus =1;
+---------+-------------------+--------------------+
| income  | income_with_bonus | loss_because_bonus |
+---------+-------------------+--------------------+
| 2416.23 |         2174.6070 |           241.6230 |
+---------+-------------------+--------------------+
1 row in set (0.06 sec)

Now my update matches the expectations and the other operations are on hold.

After session 1 commits.

session2 >SELECT * FROM sakila.customer where bonus = 1 and active =0 for update;
+-------------+----------+------------+-----------+-------+----------------+
| customer_id | store_id | first_name | last_name | bonus | activate_bonus |
+-------------+----------+------------+-----------+-------+----------------+
|           1 |        1 | MARY       | SMITH     |     1 | 1              |
|           7 |        1 | MARIA      | MILLER    |     1 | 1              |
|           9 |        2 | MARGARET   | MOORE     |     1 | 1              |
|         178 |        2 | MARION     | SNYDER    |     1 | 1              |
|         236 |        1 | MARCIA     | DEAN      |     1 | 1              |
|         246 |        1 | MARIAN     | MENDOZA   |     1 | 1              |
|         254 |        2 | MAXINE     | SILVA     |     1 | 1              |
|         257 |        2 | MARSHA     | DOUGLAS   |     1 | 1              |
|         323 |        2 | MATTHEW    | MAHAN     |     1 | 1              |
|         408 |        1 | MANUEL     | MURRELL   |     1 | 1              |
+-------------+----------+------------+-----------+-------+----------------+
10 rows in set (52.72 sec) <-- Note the time!

session2 >update sakila.customer set active = 1 where bonus = 1 and active =0 ;
Query OK, 10 rows affected (0.06 sec)
Rows matched: 10  Changed: 10  Warnings: 0

Session 2 is able to complete BUT it was on hold for 52 seconds waiting for session 1.
As said this solution is a good one if you can afford locks and waiting time.

Solution 3

In this case we will use a different isolation model that will allow session 1 to see what session 2 has modified.

session1 >set transaction_isolation = 'READ-COMMITTED';
session1 >Start Transaction;
session1 >SELECT * FROM sakila.customer where bonus = 1 and active =1 order by last_name;
+-------------+----------+------------+-----------+-------+----------------+
| customer_id | store_id | first_name | last_name | bonus | activate_bonus |
+-------------+----------+------------+-----------+-------+----------------+
|         383 |        1 | MARTIN     | BALES     |     1 | 0              |
|         539 |        1 | MATHEW     | BOLIN     |     1 | 0              |
|         441 |        1 | MARIO      | CHEATHAM  |     1 | 0              |
|         482 |        1 | MAURICE    | CRAWLEY   |     1 | 0              |
|         293 |        2 | MAE        | FLETCHER  |     1 | 0              |
|          38 |        1 | MARTHA     | GONZALEZ  |     1 | 0              |
|         444 |        2 | MARCUS     | HIDALGO   |     1 | 0              |
|         252 |        2 | MATTIE     | HOFFMAN   |     1 | 0              |
|         256 |        2 | MABEL      | HOLLAND   |     1 | 0              |
|         226 |        2 | MAUREEN    | LITTLE    |     1 | 0              |
|         588 |        1 | MARION     | OCAMPO    |     1 | 0              |
|         499 |        2 | MARC       | OUTLAW    |     1 | 0              |
|         553 |        1 | MAX        | PITT      |     1 | 0              |
|         312 |        2 | MARK       | RINEHART  |     1 | 0              |
|          80 |        1 | MARILYN    | ROSS      |     1 | 0              |
|         583 |        1 | MARSHALL   | THORN     |     1 | 0              |
|         128 |        1 | MARJORIE   | TUCKER    |     1 | 0              |
|          44 |        1 | MARIE      | TURNER    |     1 | 0              |
|         267 |        1 | MARGIE     | WADE      |     1 | 0              |
|         240 |        1 | MARLENE    | WELCH     |     1 | 0              |
|         413 |        2 | MARVIN     | YEE       |     1 | 0              |
+-------------+----------+------------+-----------+-------+----------------+
21 rows in set (0.08 sec)

Same result as before. Now let us execute commands in session2:

session2 >set transaction_isolation = 'READ-COMMITTED';
Query OK, 0 rows affected (0.00 sec)

session2 >
session2 >Start Transaction;
Query OK, 0 rows affected (0.00 sec)

session2 >SELECT * FROM sakila.customer where bonus = 1 and active =0 ;
+-------------+----------+------------+-----------+-------+----------------+
| customer_id | store_id | first_name | last_name | bonus | activate_bonus |
+-------------+----------+------------+-----------+-------+----------------+
|           1 |        1 | MARY       | SMITH     |     1 | 0              |
|           7 |        1 | MARIA      | MILLER    |     1 | 0              |
|           9 |        2 | MARGARET   | MOORE     |     1 | 0              |
|         178 |        2 | MARION     | SNYDER    |     1 | 0              |
|         236 |        1 | MARCIA     | DEAN      |     1 | 0              |
|         246 |        1 | MARIAN     | MENDOZA   |     1 | 0              |
|         254 |        2 | MAXINE     | SILVA     |     1 | 0              |
|         257 |        2 | MARSHA     | DOUGLAS   |     1 | 0              |
|         323 |        2 | MATTHEW    | MAHAN     |     1 | 0              |
|         408 |        1 | MANUEL     | MURRELL   |     1 | 0              |
+-------------+----------+------------+-----------+-------+----------------+
10 rows in set (0.00 sec)
session2 >update sakila.customer set active = 1 where bonus = 1 and active =0 ;
Query OK, 10 rows affected (0.00 sec)
Rows matched: 10  Changed: 10  Warnings: 0

session2 >commit;
Query OK, 0 rows affected (0.00 sec)

All seems the same, but if we check again in session 1:

session1 >SELECT * FROM sakila.customer where bonus = 1 and active =1 order by last_name;
+-------------+----------+------------+-----------+------+----------------+
| customer_id | store_id | first_name | last_name |bonus | activate_bonus |
+-------------+----------+------------+-----------+------+----------------+
|         383 |        1 | MARTIN     | BALES     |    1 | 1              |
|         539 |        1 | MATHEW     | BOLIN     |    1 | 1              |
|         441 |        1 | MARIO      | CHEATHAM  |    1 | 1              |
|         482 |        1 | MAURICE    | CRAWLEY   |    1 | 1              |
|         236 |        1 | MARCIA     | DEAN      |    1 | 0              |
|         257 |        2 | MARSHA     | DOUGLAS   |    1 | 0              |
|         293 |        2 | MAE        | FLETCHER  |    1 | 1              |
|          38 |        1 | MARTHA     | GONZALEZ  |    1 | 1              |
|         444 |        2 | MARCUS     | HIDALGO   |    1 | 1              |
|         252 |        2 | MATTIE     | HOFFMAN   |    1 | 1              |
|         256 |        2 | MABEL      | HOLLAND   |    1 | 1              |
|         226 |        2 | MAUREEN    | LITTLE    |    1 | 1              |
|         323 |        2 | MATTHEW    | MAHAN     |    1 | 0              |
|         246 |        1 | MARIAN     | MENDOZA   |    1 | 0              |
|           7 |        1 | MARIA      | MILLER    |    1 | 0              |
|           9 |        2 | MARGARET   | MOORE     |    1 | 0              |
|         408 |        1 | MANUEL     | MURRELL   |    1 | 0              |
|         588 |        1 | MARION     | OCAMPO    |    1 | 1              |
|         499 |        2 | MARC       | OUTLAW    |    1 | 1              |
|         553 |        1 | MAX        | PITT      |    1 | 1              |
|         312 |        2 | MARK       | RINEHART  |    1 | 1              |
|          80 |        1 | MARILYN    | ROSS      |    1 | 1              |
|         254 |        2 | MAXINE     | SILVA     |    1 | 0              |
|           1 |        1 | MARY       | SMITH     |    1 | 0              |
|         178 |        2 | MARION     | SNYDER    |    1 | 0              |
|         583 |        1 | MARSHALL   | THORN     |    1 | 1              |
|         128 |        1 | MARJORIE   | TUCKER    |    1 | 1              |
|          44 |        1 | MARIE      | TURNER    |    1 | 1              |
|         267 |        1 | MARGIE     | WADE      |    1 | 1              |
|         240 |        1 | MARLENE    | WELCH     |    1 | 1              |
|         413 |        2 | MARVIN     | YEE       |    1 | 1              |
+-------------+----------+------------+-----------+------+----------------+
31 rows in set (0.09 sec)

We now can see all the 31 customers and also the value calculation:

+---------+-------------------+--------------------+
| income  | income_with_bonus | loss_because_bonus |
+---------+-------------------+--------------------+
| 3754.01 |         3378.6090 |           375.4010 |
+---------+-------------------+--------------------+

Is reporting the right values.

At this point we can program some logic in the process to check the possible tolerance, and have the process either complete performing the update operations or to stop the process and exit.

This as mentioned requires additional coding and more logic.

To be fully honest, this solution still leaves space to some possible interference, but at least allow the application to be informed about what is happening. Still it should be used only if you cannot afford to have a higher level of locking, but this is another story/article.

Conclusions

When writing applications that interact with a RDBMS, you must be very careful in what you do and HOW you do it. While using data facilitation layers like Object Relational Mapping (ORM), seems to make your life easier, in reality you may lose control on a few crucial aspects of the application’s interaction. So be very careful when opting for how to access your data.

About the case reported above we can summarize a few pitfalls:

  1. First and most important, never ever have processes that may interfere with the one running at the same time. Be very careful when you design them and even more careful when planning their executions.  
  2. Use options such as for share or for update in your select statements. Use them carefully to avoid unuseful locks, but use them. 
  3. In case you have a long process that requires modifying data, and you need to be able to check if other processes have altered the status of the data, but at the same time, cannot have a long wait time for locks. Then use a mix, setting READ-COMMITTED as isolation, to allow your application to check, but also add things like for share or for update in the select statement, immediately before the DML and the commit. That will allow you to prevent writes while you are finalizing, and also to significantly reduce the locking time. 
  4. Keep in mind that long running processes and long running transactions can be the source of a lot of pain, especially when using REPEATABLE-READ. Try whenever you can to split the operations in small chunks. 

Finally when developing, remember that DBAs are friends, and are there to help you to do the things at the best. It may seem they are giving you a hard time, but that is because their point of view is different, focusing on data consistency, availability and durability. But they can help you to save a lot of time after the code is released, especially when you try to identify why something has gone wrong. 

So involve them soon in the design process, use them and let them be part of the process.

References

https://dev.mysql.com/doc/refman/8.0/en/innodb-transaction-isolation-levels.html

https://dev.mysql.com/doc/refman/8.0/en/innodb-consistent-read.html

https://dev.mysql.com/doc/refman/8.0/en/innodb-transaction-model.html

Whystop befool

Marco, why did you write this long article?

Yes, it is long, and I know most of the people will not read it in full, but my hope is that at least someone will, and I count on them to make the wave of sanity. 

Why I wrote it is simple. We write articles to share something we discover, or to share new approaches or as in this case to try to demystify and put in the right perspective the “last shining thing” that will save the world.  

The “last shining thing” is the use of containers for relational databases management systems (RDBMS) and all the attached solutions like Kubernetes or similar. 

Why is this a problem? The use of containers for RDBMS is not really a problem per se, but it had become a problem because it was not correctly contextualized and even more important, the model that should be used to properly design the solutions, was not reviewed and modified in respect to the classic one.

One example for all is this image:

db on kube 1

Source (https://www.cockroachlabs.com/blog/kubernetes-trends/) 

In this report we find the use of the term Database multiple times, and reference how easy it is to adopt and scale a Database on Kubernetes. But the problem is … what Database? Not all the Databases are the same, not all can be adopted so easily, some use more restrictive design to be real RDBMS, others less. 

Some are designed to scale horizontally, others no. The other missed part is that, to get something you need to give something. If I design a system to scale horizontally, I probably have to pay a price on something else. It could be the lack of referential integrity or the Isolation level, it doesn’t matter, but you do not get anything for free. 

Generalizing without mentioning the difference is misleading.

What happens instead is that we have a lot of people, presenting solutions that are so generic that are unusable. The most hilarious thing is that they present that as an inevitable evolution, the step into the future that will solve every problem. But when doing this, they do not clarify what is the “Database” in use, what you get, what you lose. This may lead to misunderstanding and future frustration. 

For instance we constantly see presentations that illustrate how easy it will be to manage hundreds, thousands of pods containing RDBMS, without even understanding the concept of RDBMS, the data they may host and its dimension. 

The more we go ahead the more dangerous this disinformation is becoming, because we can say that on 100 companies currently using RDBMS to manage their crucial data, only 10 have a good team of experts that understand how to really use containers, and probably only 1 or 2 of them have real data experts that are able to redesign the data layer to be correctly utilized in containers or able to see to what proper Database to migrate to achieve the expected results.

Another common expectation is to move to container/kubernetes to reduce the costs, no matter if related to the iron (physical servers) or of the management of them. 

Indeed you can optimise that part, but you need to understand the limitations of your future solution. You must take into account that you may not have the same level of service in a way or another. Honestly I haven't seen that addressed in current blogging or reports. 

This is why this article. What I want to do is to open a door to a discussion, that will lead us to review the original model used to design data inside RDBMS, that will allow anyone to safely approach a different model to use for modern database design.

When

(if you know how we get here you can skip this)

To fully understand what we are talking about we need to do a jump back in time, because without history we are nothing, without memory we are lost. Just note that I am going to touch on things at a very high level and for what we are concerned, otherwise this will be a book not an article.

A long time ago in a world far far away where the internet was not, there was: client server approach.

ClientServerArchitecture1 

At that time we had many clients connecting to a server to provide access to whatever. Most of the clients were performing information rendering and local data validation, then they sent the information back to the application server who processed them and store… where? Well there was a high variety of containers. Some were just proprietary files with custom format, others connected to an external database.  What is relevant here is that we had a very limited number of clients (often less than 1k) and at the end the amount of data in transit and then store was very small (if a database had more than 1GB data in total  it was considered a monster). 

 

Then came the internet … and many things started to change. 

clientserver web

We still have a client on our PC, but now is called a web Browser, the information rendering is now standardize using SGML standards (HTML tagging), the server is not anymore a simple Application Server, but a web server who is connected to one or many application(s) using common gateway interface (CGI). Each application was then handling the data in/out independently, some using databases some not. 

This new approach add to the previous model many challenges like:

  • Anyone from anywhere can access the Web Server and any application hosted
  • The number of requests and clients connected jump from well predictable numbers to something impossible to define.
  • The connection to a web server follows a different approach based on a request issued by a browser and a set of information that will be sent as an answer from the server. (later we will have more interactive/active protocols but let us stay high ok?) 
  • Many application were duplicating the same functions but with different approach
  • Data received and sent needs to be consistent not only locally on the server, but also between requests. 

So on top of the problem generated by the number of possible clients connected and the amount of requests per second a web server was in need to process, the initial model was wasting resources in development and when running. There was the need to optimise the interactions between applications and their functions, to cover that the Service Oriented Architecture (SOA) model was largely adopted.

1920px SOA Metamodelsvg

The data problem was partially solved identifying RDBMS as the best tool to use to guarantee the level of data consistency and at the same time it was possible to organize data in containers (tables) with validated interactions (Foreign keys and constraints) solving the online transaction processing (OLTP) problem. While for business analysis and reporting the Online analytical processing (OLAP) model was chosen. The OLAP model is based on facts and dimensions, which are elements of the data hypercube which is the base model that is utilized to first transform and then access the data.  

During this time, the data as volume starts to increase significantly, most of the systems, when well designed, start to implement the concept of archiving, partitioning, and sharding. 

We are around 2005-2008.

 

Then social media and online shopping explode... 

Well we know that, right? We are still in this huge big bang of nonsense. What changed was not only that now anyone can access whatever is on a web server as certified information, but we can chat with anyone, we can buy almost anything, we can sell anything, we can make photos and share them, videos and ask anyone from anywhere to comment and we can say whatever and that crap will remain forever around. 

And guess what? To do that you need a very, very, very powerful scalable platform and it should be resilient, but for real not as a joke. When we look for something today, we open our phones, we expect to have that now and no matter what. If we do not get it, we may look to a different place, like another shop, or another chat system or whatever.  To achieve this you do not only need to have some specialized bloks, but to split the load in many small parts, then be able to have redundancy for each one of them, and be able to have any functional block able to connect to another functional block. Moreover, if one of the blocks goes down I must be able to retry the operation using another functional block of the same kind, and be sure I will have the same results.  

To achieve this the SOA concept was evolved into the Microservice concept. But microservice also brings new challenges. One for all is how to manage these thousands of different functional bloks, and how to efficiently deploy/remove/modify them. 

Interestingly the term DevOps also started to get more relevance, and automation became a crucial part of ANY environment. 

In short the modern application architectures moves from Monolithic or SOA to microservice as shown here:

microservice draft 3 03 db

Of course reality sees each microservice block be redundant and scalable. Given that for each microservice kind we can have 1 to infinite number of instances. 

It is in this context that the use of Kubernetes comes in help. Kubernetes is designed to help manage the resources as microservices, each element (pod) is seen in function of the service provided, the service will scale up and down  adding/removing the pod, keeping the service resilient. 

Expecting to deal with a structure like this without proper tooling/automation is just not possible:

amazon death star

This picture represent the Amazon microservice infrastructure in 2008 https://twitter.com/Werner/status/741673514567143424

In conclusion

In short, we can say that the complex topologies we have to deal with today are the results of a needed evolution from monolithic application approach to a distributed one in services/microservices. The proliferation of which had made absolutely necessary the creation and usage of a tool to facilitate the management, reducing complexity, time to perform the operations and costs. 

Cool eh? What about the database? 

The first thing to say is that RDBMS as Oracle, Postgres and MySQL did not evolve in the same direction. They remain centralized structures. We have clusters but mostly to answer to High Availability needs and not scaling. 

This is the part of the story, the current evangelists of the “last shining thing” are not telling you. There is no coverage for the RDBMS like Oracle, Postgres or MySQL in the microservice approach. None, zero, nich, nada!

To bypass that problem, many microservices developers implemented complex mechanisms of caching or use noSQL approaches.
Using caches to speedup the processing is absolutely ok, trying to use them instead of an ACID solution, is not. Same as the use of noSQL, if it makes sense because the service requires then ok otherwise no.

But what is the problem in seeing a RDBMS as a microservice?
Let us start with a positive thing. If you design it as a microservice and reset the expectations, then it is ok.

What benefits (pros)? 

The first thought is why I should move to kubernetes/containers. What am I expecting to get more that I do not already have?

Well let see the few basic points a microservice solution should help me with in case of application:

  • Modularity: 
    • This makes the application easier to understand, develop, test, and become more resilient to architecture erosion.
  • Scalability: 
    • Since microservices are implemented and deployed independently of each other, i.e. they run within independent processes, they can be monitored and scaled independently.
  • Better Fault Isolation for More Resilient Applications.
    • With a microservices architecture, the failure of one service is less likely to negatively impact other parts of the application because each microservice runs autonomously from the others. 
    • Nevertheless, large distributed microservices architectures tend to have many dependencies, so developers need to protect the application from a dependency failure related shut down.
  • Integration of heterogeneous and legacy systems: 
    • microservices is considered as a viable means for modernizing existing monolithic software applications.
    • There are experience reports of several companies who have successfully replaced (parts of) their existing software with microservices, or are in the process of doing so.
    • The process for Software modernization of legacy applications is done using an incremental approach.
  • Faster Time to Market and “Future-Proofing” 
    • The pluggability of a microservices application architecture allows for easier and faster application development and upgrades. Developers can quickly build or change a microservice, then plug it into the architecture with less risk of coding conflicts and service outages. Moreover, due to the independence of each microservice, teams don’t have to worry about coding conflicts, and they don’t have to wait for slower-moving projects before launching their part of the application.
    • Microservices also support the CI/CD/CD (Continuous Integration, Continuous Delivery, Continuous Deployment) development philosophy. This means that you quickly deploy the core microservices of an application – as a minimum viable product (MVP) – and continuously update the product over time as you complete additional microservices. It also means that you can respond to security threats and add new technologies as they appear. The result for the user is a “future proof” product that’s constantly evolving with the times.

Of course this is for applications let us try to map similar things for a database if it makes any sense. 

  • Modularity. We can have two different level of modularity:
    • By service. When using by service we need to have data modules that serve the microservices who use that segment of data. IE login needs data about user login only, not information about customer orders.
    • By context. When by context, we need to group as much as possible the data relevant to a specific topic. In a multitenant database we will need to separate the data such that all microservices will be able to scale accessing the data relevant to only one tenant, not all, then filtering. IE in our example above, we will have the whole schema in our service but only for one single tenant  
  • Scalability. To gain infinite scalability as we do for applications, we should be able to:
    • Either the database service is able to perform non impacting distributed locking. What I mean here is that independently by the type of modularity used, if we need to be able to scale the number of requests/sec duplicating the service who answer the requests, we need to be able to avoid two different pods to overwrite eachother without or with minimal impact on the performance. As for today in the MySQL area we have two solutions that could cover that, PXC with galera and MySQL/PS with group replication. But both solutions have performance impact when using multiple writers. Not only, in these solutions data is not distributed by partitions, but duplicated in full for each pod. This means that unless you have a very good archiving strategy your space utilization will always be S x N (where s is the total space in one pod and N the number of pods).
      Because of this, if we choose this approach, we need to keep our dataset to the minimum to reduce any locking impact and data utilization.    
    • Or sharding the data by pods, which means we need to have a controller able to distribute the data. Of course we need to have High Availability so we need to consider at least a copy of each node or distributed partitioning. As far as I know MySQL or Postgres don’t have this functionality, Mongo not sure.

In the end, a RDBMS microservice will not be able to scale in the same way an application microservice does. 

  • Better Fault Isolation for More Resilient Applications.
    Well it comes without saying. If the model used is by context, the fact we will isolate the data service in smaller entities will help the resilience of the whole system.  But the relationship that exists inside a schema can make the by service model more fragile, given that when 1 segment is down it will not be possible to validate the reference .   
  • Integration of heterogeneous and legacy systems. To be honest I can see this is possible only if modularity by service is used. Otherwise we will still have to deal with the whole structure and multiple services. In the last case I don’t see any benefit and we will have to perform operations like modifying a table definition, that can be as fast as renaming a field, or very impactful.
  • Faster Time to Market and “Future-Proofing”
    Indeed the divide and conquer approach especially if using the by service model will help in making each service more flexible to changes, but if by context is used, then we may have a negative effect because an application microservice may read data from N data microservices. If we change one data microservice (ie adding an index to a table), this change must be applied to all of the N microservice by context or the behaviour of the microservices will be different from the one with the change.
  • Distributed development. Also in this case we need to consider it easier to achieve if modularity by service is used. Otherwise I don’t really see how it will be possible to perform any of the mentioned points that are valid for applications. 

What concerns (cons)?

Now let us discuss the possible concerns.

  • Services form information barriers. Well it comes without saying. 
  • Inter-service calls over a network have a higher cost in terms of network latency and message processing time than in-process calls within a monolithic service process. Just think about some standard maintenance work that needs to be done to consolidate the data from each service to a single location for business intelligence purposes. And keep in mind that all must be encrypted for security reasons.  
  • Testing and deployment are more complicated. While acting on a single module will be easier, the deployment of the full solution and its testing will become extremely complicated.  
  • Viewing the size of services as the primary structuring mechanism can lead to too many services when the alternative of internal modularization may lead to a simpler design. This is true when using the by service modularity, we may end up having too many fragments of data, with serious difficulties in consolidating it. And of course, we still need to know and keep an eye on what is happening on the rest of the schema used by other services.
  • Two-phased commits are regarded as an anti-pattern in microservices-based architectures as this results in a tighter coupling of all the participants within the transaction. However, lack of this technology causes awkward dances which have to be implemented by all the transaction participants in order to maintain data consistency.
  • Development and support of many services is more challenging if they are built with different tools and technologies. It is not uncommon to have complex applications use different data sources, like RDBMS and a document store. While the use of microservice can help in simplifying how the data is collected and handled from these different sources, the additional fragmentation leads to a significant increase of the complexity to handle the platform. To be honest, solutions as Kubernetes can help a lot here, but still an issue.  
  • The protocol typically used with microservices (HTTP) was designed for public-facing services, and as such is unsuitable for working internal microservices that often must be impeccably reliable. This issue applies to databases in a different way. Because we will have 2 different aspects. The first one is the application microservice connecting and reading/writing to the data microservice. These operations must use the proprietary client protocol of the RDBMS. Then the second part is when the application microservice is sharing/serving the data to others. Say I am posting a payment and a network glitch happens between application microservices. I must be able to:
    • Retry the data sharing
    • Rollback the operation on the database if failing

The HTTP protocol is not the best/most performant way to that given the post/get approach used.  

Let me give an example to clarify this. 

We are an organization who does multiple activities. We have shops all over the globe and a huge segment of my sales is online. We also organize travels and host web-stores. To deal with the traffic and load I have moved my large part of the application architecture to microservice. To provide better services to my customers I also have to differentiate my catalog by geographic regions, splitting my market into North America, Europe, Middle-East, Asia and pacific. I have data centers in each geo-zone. Each geo-zone also hosts a local data repository that is focused on the specifics of the area. Finally my sales are consolidated in two steps, first locally by geo-area, then centrally in the North America HQ. We have hundreds of database services for each segment of business, and thousands of pods of the application.

One of mine online shop that use microservices at high level looks like this for each geo-zone:

db as service1

Where Service-1 can be the login of a user and its authentication, Service-2 the show/retrieval of the items in special-sales, Service-3 dealing with existing order information … and so on. 

So I have specialized microservices that may serve multiple applications, like sign on, but each microservice at the moment needs to retrieve and send data from/to the same repository. 

Each database contains data relevant to a specific business activity. For instance our main store data is separate from the travel data and so on. Because this the “My DB” above just represents one of many databases we have. The detailed design of it may resemble this:

schema db

All credits for this diagram go to Barry Williams

Let us play the game, what do I need to do to convert this to a microservice?

Let us now try to apply what we have discussed so far about the expectations (pros/cons) and see if we will be able to make this fit. Given I am a MySQL expert I am going to cover the next step in the MySQL context.

Case one Modular by context

The first step is to choose the kind of modularity we want/can use. Let us start with the one which requires less changes, the module by context. 

When using that approach our schema remains the same, what we do is in case of multi-tenant to make it single-tenant, then we need to see how to cover the other aspects. 

 

The next step is scalability, and here we start to have problems. As already mentioned above there is no way to achieve the same level of scalability we have with the application layer. So what can we really do? 

As mentioned in the MySQL ecosystem we have two major solutions, one is Percona XtraDB Cluster (PXC) using galera virtually synchronous replication, the other is MySQL or Percona Server with group replication (GR). We have another player here which may actually fit much better, but at the time of writing there is no container solution for it. I am talking about the MySQL NDB cluster.

Anyhow both PXC and GR allow to have Single primary (one writer) or multiple Primary (multiple writers). But the use of multi Primary is discouraged because of the loss of performance caused by the write conflict resolution. What this means is that at each commit the node receiving the writes must certify the commit against the whole cluster. The more nodes write at the same time, the more chances of conflicts will rise. Each conflict will end up with a conflict resolution and a possible rollback of the operation. All these instead adding scalability is actually impacting it and significantly reducing the performance.

On the other hand, reads can easily scale using multiple nodes. But keep in mind that the two solutions cannot really scale in number of nodes to the infinite. GR has a hard limit of nine nodes, while PXC has no hard limit, but more nodes, more latency at each write commit and more cost in maintaining the cluster, in short when you reach a cluster with 7 nodes you already start to experience significant slow down and latency.    

So what level of scalability do we have here? The answer is easy, none! 

Yes none, as it is you can have and will have only 1 node (pod) writing at a given time, so your level of scalability in writing is the capacity of 1 node, period. 

 

Unless you adopt sharding. In that case you may have multiple microservice each covering one shard with a fixed number of nodes (pods). So the scaling is not internal to the microservice but in the duplication of it. 

Application at this point has three ways to use this approach:

  • Be shard aware and have a list of microservice to use when in the need (a shard catalog)
  • Be shard aware but refer to a generalized catalog service to access the data.
  • Not shard aware but pass information to the generalized catalog service to identify the shard.

 The first option is not really optimal because anytime we add a shard we need to “inform/modify” the catalog in all relevant application microservice. 

The second and the third assume the presence of another service dedicated to resolving the sharding.  

I am not going into the details here but this can be achieved by adding a ProxySQL microservice. Such that the scenario will be:

db as service proxy microservice sharding

Where each data service shard is a Percona Distribution for MySQL Operator (PDMO).

Scalability is then guaranteed by adding a PDMO shard and just an entry in ProxySQL in the mysql servers and query rules. 

 

Better Fault Isolation for More Resilient Applications. Adopting the above model will allow us to be not only more resilient in case we migrate from a multi-tenant approach, but also in case we do not. No matter what if the application is correctly written if a shard will go down only that segment will be affected. 

 

Integration and changes will become more cumbersome given the scale of the services. This is in the model and will represent a risk in case of mistakes or improper data definition modifications. But it will be easier to roll back by shard than against the monolithic data service. 

Distributed development. There will not be any advantage here, as developer or DBA I still need to consider the whole data definition scenario and not just a small segment. So while a developer can focus only on one aspect (i.e. login), a DBA still needs to take care of the whole schema and the impact of the operations (like locking) on the single table (i.e. users) for that service. 

 

Dimension of the dataset. But here we have another important concern, at least for now. To be so agile each single service (or microservice) needs to be able to be rebuilt quickly. This means that when a pod inside a data microservice crashes the cluster needs to rebuild it as fast as possible, or the QOS (quality of service) will be impacted. As for now both PXC and GR if in need to rebuild a node must actually copy the data over the new pod. This can be very fast in case of small datasets, or take days in case of very large. Given that when we plan to use a data microservice we also need to plan/design a very efficient archiving mechanism that allows us to stay in our microservices only the data that is really needed at the moment. All the data that can be considered not actual should be moved to an OLAP system and have dedicated service to retrieve it.     

 

db as service etl

 

Case two modularity by service. 

What modularity by service means? It means I can split the data schema definition into small segments that correspond to the services. So my data segment will be functional to the use done by the application microservices. As an example I may have microservice dealing with: Login; shipments; invoicing … and so on. 

This means that in case of the invoice I should fragment the schema as follow:

schema invoice order

But these are the same tables I also need to serve shipments, so I must use the same data microservice, for both. This is ok … but … the question is can we? Can we split in small segments a schema that is built on relationships? Orders are linked to Customers and to products. How do we manage these referential integrity links if we start to split the schema?  

Again a simple answer, we cannot. If you are using a RDBMS the R is for relational and you cannot break the model and hope to have some data integrity. 

If you need that approach, then please use something else like noSQL Cassandra or similar. And then consolidate the data in the OLAP system. But do not use a RDBMS.

Given the above the by service approach, which was the one closer to give us what we need in the microsystem area, is not utilizable when talking of RDBMS. Period. 

I want to move to containers/Kubernetes to rationalize the resource utilizations and lower management cost

So far we have talked about moving to containers/kubernetes as an answer to application microservices, but there is another possible need that may lead you to see containers/kubernetes as “the solution”, the need to optimize resources.

 

It goes without saying that if you have hundreds or more small instances of a RDBMS, sparse n many different physical servers, or also some virtualization, the move may help you. The current operators like PDMO offer you a lot of automation, to perform not only installation of the main environment, but you will be able to easily automate and manage:

  • Installation
  • Geographic distribution
  • Backup/restore
  • Point in time recovery

All this with simple commands through kubernetes. 

 

As also indicated in my blog here, you will also be able to rationalize the resource utilization reducing the costs. 

 

So yes, of course this can be helpful and probably you should seriously look into migrating your environment to it. But it is not for all. 

Again keep in mind that Kubernetes/containers are mainly designed to work with distributed services, and when talking about resiliency, the resilient factor for kubernetes is the service, not the single pod.

What it means is that it could happen that a pod has issues and that it will be destroyed and rebuilt. If you have a pod containing stateless application, this takes seconds and has no impact on the cluster. 

But if you are talking about the node of a cluster with several terabytes of data, that will impact the cluster and the service. 

 

This is it, when dealing with large clusters and kubernetes, you may need to keep into account factors that may trigger actions, like dropping a pod, that instead require more flexibility. 

A good example is when a pod starts to have temporary network glitches. In the case of PDMO with PXC, the cluster will try to heal itself at PXC level. That operation may temporarily exclude a node from the cluster, and then let it join again. This operation has a cost in performance and efficiency of the cluster itself, but normally it resolves in a few seconds.

The same network glitches can be seen from kubernetes as a pod failure, and action may be taken directly on the pod, removing it from the cluster and rebuilding a new node. That operation not only may take hours or days, but will impact on the cluster performance in a significant way until all the data is copied over from a data node to another.

The addition of kubernetes also adds the need to have additional understanding on how effectively tuning the service to prevent wrong management actions like the one described. Tuning that needs to be done in respect to the traffic served and the dimension of the dataset.    

 

The advice here is to start small, adopt the help of experts in setting up the environment and tune it properly, gain good understanding and then start to increase the challenge. And never trust the defaults settings in the configuration files.

Wrapping up … 

Given all the above.

If we are looking to containers/Kubernetes for our databases as an addition to an existing or new environment based on microservices, then the question is: Are we following evolution and really providing a benefit adopting the kubernetes/microservice approach to RDBMS?

As we have seen the move to microservice was an answer to provide better flexibility, scalability and many other *bility to the application layer. 

An RDBMS is, on the other hand, a system designed to answer to the ACID paradigm, which is the core of a RDBM and the model should never be broken.  

As we have seen, it is possible to create fragments and scale, but this needs to happen in getting consistent sets of data.
Sharding is one option, but it requires a lot of investment in re-design the data layer and adapting the application. It will also open a lot of new problems, including data archiving and possible/probable data redundancy. All problems that require a deep analysis and proper design before moving. Not impossible but not something you should do without preparation, care and investment in time and money. 

If instead the scope is to reduce the overhead in management and resource optimization, the task is easier. The scaling factor is not there, and you are not bounding your data layer to a microservice concept. But, you still need to be careful and properly analyze the move, considering the side effects not only today, but in the long run. Questions like, how big my dataset will be in 1 year, are pivotal.    

Blindly moving your database stack to containers/kubernetes or similar, without raising the right questions will only be your source of pain and despair for the next few years. It will not be your saviour but your executioner. 

At the same time there are cases where it may fit, as shown previously, but is not a blanket solution. 

Keep in mind this brief list:

  • An RDBMS like MySQL, does not scale writes inside a single service (at the moment of writing)
  • Bigger is the dataset longer it will be the possible downtime you will suffer (consider review your RTO/RPO)
  • You cannot have a relation 1:1 with an application microservice, unless your RDBMS contains only non relational schemas.
  • In case you go for microservice (and shard). You MUST have an OLAP system to serve consolidated data.
  • In case you are looking to reduce management cost and gain resource optimization. Start small, and keep going like that.    

Said that, if you instead of moving foolishly, stop and ask DBA and DATA experts for help, and design a proper system, then the use of RDBMS on containers/Kubernetes could become a nice surprise. 

Last thing, you may discover that you do not need a tight RDBMS, you may discover that something else could serve your needs better like Cassandra or CockroachDB, and then you need to migrate to it as a real solution. In that case your need for data experts is even more urgent and the need to have them working closely with your developers is a mandatory step to success. 

 

Disclaimer 

My blog, my opinions. 

I am not, in any way or aspects, presenting here the official line of thoughts of the company I am working for.

Comments

Comments are welcome but given the topic and the fact this is going to be more probable (hopefully) an open discussion, I advice you to comment on this linkedin post. 

Preface

Percona is well known for its offer of several outstanding fully open source, free to download software packages. And while Percona started as a MySQL focus company, nowadays it covers different technologies such as MySQL, Postgres and Mongodb.

In its constant effort to make life easier for our utilizer Percona had moved from providing single software packages, to Percona Distributions for MySQL, MongoDB and Postgres. Percona Distributions are a set of software packages that Percona has tested and certifies working together. That it easier to deploy architectural solutions requiring the use of multiple components, such as proxy, topology manager, backup software and more. 

But we are going even further, and with the release of Percona Distribution for MySQL/MongoDB Operator we are providing a high level of automation to roll out and manage solutions based on Percona Distributions. 

One of my tasks, as MySQL technical leader, is to identify optimal architectures to serve several common cases. Such as Percona Distribution for MySQL: High Availability with Group Replication Solution. Or in the case of  Percona Distribution for MySQL Operator, identify the different dimensions (low/mid/high utilization) and suggest a Vanilla setup with the scope to get the most out of the solution deployed.  

This is a long exercise, which started with a lot of internal discussions to identify what can make sense as traffic, then testing, identifying the saturation points, testing again and so on. 

It is during this process that I found a small problem (Feature Request). This small issue is preventing us from easily and dynamically modifying some parameters in the checks the Operator  uses. Given that we had to put the testing on hold until the above FR is implemented. As you can see it is a small thing but it will give us better control over the Operator behavior and will help to have a well tuned platform. 

This article is to show the level of improvement you can have with small but targeted tuning.To do so I used the smallest solution we have identified. The solution is dimensioned to serve a small website or a simple application with low level of traffic. 

The environment

To help identify a balanced setup we were using sysbench and sysbench-tpcc. The whole stack on GCP was composed of Application nodes with sysbench, 2 ProxySQL nodes for R/W split only, 3 VMS 8 CPU 32GB RAM, with the Percona operator managing the MySQL service.

Untitled Diagram

Tests

For this specific test we were running 68 - 96 -128 - 256 threads:

  • Sysbench read only
  • Sysbench read/write
  • Sysbench Tpc-c like 

The tests were run multiple times and the data considered is the consolidation of the multiple runs. 

We always run first on basic environments for baseline. Meaning no tuning for the MySQL or Operator, just dimension correctly disk space and BufferPool (and related).

Then we apply some tuning and run the tests multiple times eventually refining when/where needed. 

The code can be found here and here

And now the results…

Sysbench r/w tests

I am not going to describe in detail the images that I think are clear enough. Just keep in mind on the left we have the results from our baseline, on the right the same tests on the same platform with the optimization applied.

Operations

Picture6

Worth to mention that without tuning, the platform was not able to consistently scale up to 256 threads. While with a bit of adjustment not only it was able to serve 256 threads but we could have gone a bit further.

Reads

Picture7

Writes

Picture8

Comments

As you can see the sysbench tests clearly indicate that the platform with minor adjustment was acting better, and that it was able to serve more and with constant scaling. Let me add that almost all the tests runned on the “basic” platform had incidents, meaning as soon as the traffic was increasing, Sysbench was reporting connection interruptions or errors.

TPC-C

Operations

Picture10

Reads

Picture11

Writes

Picture12

Comments

Also for Tpc-c like tests we have exactly the same trend. With our “optimised” solution able to serve up to 1516 qps while the “basic” one was able to reach only 322. In this case Also the “optimised” solution was not able to scale up to 256 threads, but that makes sense, given the more intense write workload present in this test and the small dimension of the platform.

 

Wooha what have you changed?

You may think we have done crazy things to get this difference, but we did not.

Let us jump back. As indicated at the beginning I had opened a FR (https://jira.percona.com/browse/K8SPXC-749) to be able to tune some/most of the timeouts existing in the operator.

Why? Think about this, when you install a cluster on iron, you do not set it to be able to work only when the load is low, and all the components of the server are able to answer in nanoseconds. What you do instead is tune the whole system to accommodate the increasing load, and you will give to some elements more space for “flexibility” eventually expecting to have delays in answer. When doing so you also need to correctly align all the parameters that will be affected on cascade. For instance if you know your data nodes will be very busy serving queries, they may also slow down in answering internal health checks, but if you relax the cluster health checks and not the checks used for testing the cluster from operator point of view, the platform will be unbalanced and will not work correctly.

At the same time, if you do not tune the solution at all, you may end up with a platform that is theoretically able to serve the load, but that is crashing for artificial limitations. 

The last one is exactly what was happening with our “basic” solution. As it is the operator comes with parameters that allow it to work well, but that are not designed to scale. Is like having a server where your CPUs are always at 20% and if the applications ask more, a controller will chop them in fear of having too much load. But the fact is that you want to have the CPUs at 80% or the server will be underutilized. 

Anyhow what we have changed was some Innodb parameters, to allow internal operations to work better. Then we force consistent reads in PXC, which actually SLOW down the operations, and finally we tune the PXC cluster to be more flexible in its internal checks, avoiding having it to expel nodes unless really needed to. 

All the above were done using the Operator configuration, but then we had to work manually changing all the timeouts parameters used by the operator checks to be aligned with what we had defined in the cluster. 

In particular what we have changed was:

script                      line    value
/usr/bin/clustercheckcron   33      TIMEOUT=10
liveness-check.sh           23      TIMEOUT=5
readiness-check.sh          21      TIMEOUT=10
/usr/local/bin/check_pxc.sh 15      TIMEOUT=${CUSTOM_TIMEOUT:-10}

Wait .. why ProxySQL?

Ok this is another long discussion and I will cover it better in another article. For now just consider that HAProxy does not allow r/w splitting or other nice functionalities like firewalling etcetera etcetera. So the idea is simple, let us use the operator with what fits it better, and then decouple the special needs, eventually adding proxysql in a separate deployment. 

If you are scared of the cost of adding an additional block to the architecture:

Picture1 a

Picture1 b

Where:
ProxySQL means: Application → ProxySQL → HAProxy.
HAProxy means: Application → HAProxy.

Hope this puts your worries at rest, of course this is using the “optimised” solution.

Conclusions

Percona Distribution for MySQL Operator, is a constantly growing/improving solution. It also has a lot of interesting features, like being able to manage your backup/restore, point in time recovery, and more. But its adoption is still limited and it is normal to have some drawbacks like this one. It is on us who play with real production environments, or as in this case playing to define certified solutions, to give feedback to improve how the operator works, in order to make it a stronger product able to serve you better day by day.

Now we are going to wait for the FR to be implemented, and then we will recover our dimensioning work. 

I decided to write this article after a discussion with other colleagues.  We were wondering how and if the Percona Distribution for MySQL Operator(PDMO) could help a starting bubest performance rubber stamp grunge design dust scratches effects can be easily removed clean crisp look color 88158699siness or a new project inside an enterprise.  We were also wondering how it behaves in relation to already well established solutions, like Amazon RDS or Google SQL. 

In fact, we often see analysis and benchmarking covering huge datasets and instances with very high levels of resources . But we tend to forget that any application or solution started as something small, and it is important to identify a database platform that allows us to scale from zero to a decent amount of load, while keeping the cost as low as possible.  

This also happened while I was trying to get a bit more performance and stability out of Percona Operator for MySQL, and identify the possible minimal entrypoint and its usage. 

Given all the above I decided to perform an investigation comparing the Percona Distribution for MySQL Operatorin the two most used cloud services, AWS and Google cloud. I am working on the Azure AKS and will publish results when available.

The investigation was taking in consideration three possible scenarios:

  • 1S - I have a new website and my editorial system is X, my content is mainly static (Mainly Read Only)
  • 2S - I have a new social platform, what should I use (OLTP style)
  • 3S - I have a small application dealing with orders/payments, highly transactional  (more TPC-C

And try to identify which is the best solution to use.

Of course, I do not pretend to cover all cases or even at 100% the one mentioned. But I think we can say a good 70% of cases nowaday match one of the three above

Tests

I have split the tests in three segment one for each major provider. This to be able to better compare the results, and following the assumption that if you are already registered on a platform you are more interested in comparing data locally than cross providers.

As usual for the tests I have used sysbench adapted version from here (https://github.com/Tusamarco/sysbench) and sysbench-tpcc style from here (https://github.com/Tusamarco/sysbench-tpcc). The customization for standard sysbench is in the table definition, and for tpcc like because I have improved the report layout. 

Given we are talking about an entry point for a new product, I was considering two different scenarios:

  • When dataset fits in memory
  • When dataset doesn’t fits in memory  

Data sets dimensions:

+--------------------+--------+-----------+----------+-----------+-----------+
| TABLE_SCHEMA       | TABLES | ROWS      | DATA (M) | INDEX (M) | TOTAL(M)  |
+--------------------+--------+-----------+----------+-----------+-----------+
| tpcc               |    180 | 293113897 | 44762.00 |   9033.07 |  53795.07 |
| tpcc_small         |     90 |  48899475 |  7611.15 |   1542.35 |   9153.51 |
| windmills_large    |     80 | 317752934 | 35360.00 |  38463.79 |  73823.79 |
| windmills_small    |     80 |  39731506 |  4447.50 |   6075.82 |  10523.32 |
+--------------------+--------+-----------+----------+-----------+-----------+

All tables are using InnoDB. Keep in mind that scenario 1S and scenario 2S use the same schemas (windmills_xx).

This is because normally when you start your new adventure, you do not have Terabytes of data in your database, but .. you plan to have them in the future. So most of the time you start with something very small and want to have a solution able to scale at least a bit.

I was also considering whether they need to be able to scale (a bit) so I was running tests using 64, 92,128, 256, 512 threads. 

Finally each test was executed for 100 minutes, multiple times in different moments of the day and of the week. When multiple crashes happen the result will be zero. 

Summarizing we have:

  • 3 different scenarios
    • Read Only (when write are so scarce that do not represent a variable)
    • OLTP Read and write some are inside transaction some not (especially reads)
    • TPC-C like load almost all inside transactions
  • 2 Dimensions of dataset  for each environment dimension 
    • Fits in memory (small) 
    • Large enough to cause more flushing and disk activity (large)
  • 5 increasing number of threads 

Assumptions

Assumptions and clarification before starting the review:

Q: Why are you using only one RDS instance instead of also spinning a Replica, we can also have the PDMO using only one node and reducing the cost impact.

A:  We are testing minimal production solutions. Using only a node for PDMO is delivering a solution that has no High Availability. RDS with multi AZ is providing High Availability, with lower level of nines but still functional. See: https://aws.amazon.com/blogs/database/amazon-rds-under-the-hood-multi-az/   https://aws.amazon.com/blogs/database/amazon-rds-under-the-hood-single-az-instance-recovery/ 

Q: Did you tune any of the default settings coming with the service? 

A: No. The assumption was that the provider is already providing optimised setup in relation to the solution offered. 

Q: Did you modify the PDMO settings?

A: Yes. The basic config coming with the PDMO is set for testing on a very minimal/test setup. It is not production ready and should not be used in production as well. The settings for PDMO had been changed to match the resources available and the expected load. Nothing more than what we should expect from the service providers.

The layout

AWS

The following is a simplified layout of the tested solutions.

In general terms each solution spans across multiple subnets and AZ, each solution has a dedicated Application for testing and application connected directly to the closest endpoint provided. In case of EKS the nodes are distributed over 3 different subnets.

operator layout aws

I am not reporting the whole internal details about how the Percona Distribution for MySQL Operator (PDMO) works, for that please refer to the documentation https://www.percona.com/doc/kubernetes-operator-for-pxc/index.html

The table below is reporting the high level description of the solutions tested:

machines

*For PDMO we had to use machines with more resources to host additional services like HAProxy and the operator itself. But the resources allocated for the database services were reflecting the ones used AWS for Aurora and standard RDS. Said that, while for this exercise we have used machines with a bit more resources, it is common practice to have one powerful host node with multiple database clusters to optimise cost and resource utilization, I will cover this better later in the cost section.   

Down into the rabbit hole 

A lot of graphs can be found here: 

The name includes the test and the data set dimension.

In this section we will review the results of the tests by provider.

AWS

AWS is the most utilized Cloud provider and is also the one with more solutions when discussing Database services. I have tested and compared PDMO vs Aurora and standard RDS.

For clarity I am reporting two different sets of graphs for details. One is related to CPU, memory etc, the other is more MySQL specific. 

In this context we have the following:

  • aurora-eks-test1-instance-1; Primary node of the Aurora service
  • aurora-eks-test1-instance-1-eu-central-1a; Secondary node of the Aurora service
  • Mt-rds-kube-test; RDS instance 
  • pxc-cluster1-pxc-0 ; Pod serving the MySQL traffic for PDMO 

As you may notice from the graphs, the Aurora service automatically swap/failover from a node to another more than once.  

Checking Read Only traffic (scenario 1S)

Let us start with the easiest case, a simple new website with some editorial. As already mentioned this can be considered a Read Only case given the writes should be counted in few by minutes or even less. 

Small Dataset

As previously mentioned, this case is the first baby step, when your DB is really at an infant stage.

Y axis reports operations/sec

 chart 2021 09 28 Reads sec RO small 10

In case no matter if the dataset fits in memory or not, we can notice how the Percona MySQL operator is able to serve a higher amount of traffic in respect to the other AWS solutions. If we check what seems to be the limitation factor, we can see that:

 2 CPU

2 cpu ro small OS cpu

2 cpu ro small threads

4 CPU

4 cpu ro small OS cpu

4 cpu ro small threads

We can see how in both cases the AWs solutions reach 100% of CPU utilization, limiting the number of operations they can execute in memory.
Also notice how the load was automatically moved from one Aurora instance to another during the tests (CPUs graph).

Large Dataset

Now let's see what happens if I am successful and my website starts to increase in content, such that my dataset does not fit in memory, and as such I will have MySQL evicting old pages from memory

chart 2021 09 28 Ops sec RO Large 1

In case the dataset exceeds the dimension of the memory, PDMO is still performing significantly better than the other two solutions when using 4 CPUs. But it has a significant reduction of performance when using 2 CPUs.

2 CPUs

2 cpu ro large OS cpu

2 cpu ro large threads

Disk Latency

2 cpu ro large OS disk latency

The other relevant fact to notice is how the disk latency affected the reads for the PDMO when using a large dataset and 2 CPUs.
This negative effect doesn't show up in case of 4 CPUs 

4 CPUs 

4 cpu ro large OS cpu

4 cpu ro large threads

Also in the case of 4 CPUs we see the same behavior, with AWS solutions not able to scale and failing to serve traffic. 

Disk Latency

4 cpu ro large OS disk latency

Checking OLTP (scenario 2S)

This case is obviously more complicated given the writes and transactions. The level of reads is still high, around 93% but all operations are enclosed inside transactions. 

In this case we MUST review in parallel the SMALL and LARGE dataset to better understand what is happening.

Operation/sec

 chart 2021 09 28 Reads sec OLTP small 11 chart 2021 09 28 Ops sec OLTP large 2 

 

As you can see the solution using the Operator is overperforming in the case of small and large datasets. While AWS solutions are still suffering from the same CPU limitation we have seen in the read only load. 

2 CPUs small

2 cpu rw small OS cpu

 2 cpu rw small threads

2 CPUs Large

2 cpu rw large OS cpu

We can observe how CPUs resources in the case of AWS solutions are always at 100%, while PDMO can count on resource scaling.

2 cpu rw large threads

2 CPUs large Disk Latency

2 cpu rw large OS disk latency

4 CPUs small

4 cpu rw small OS cpu

4 cpu rw small threads 

4 CPUs Small Disk Latency

4 cpu rw small OS disk latency

4 CPUs large

4 cpu rw large OS cpu

4 cpu rw large threads

4 CPUs Large Disk Latency

4 cpu rw large OS disk latency

With 4 CPUs available the Aurora solution can count in a bit more “space” to scale, but still not enough to result as efficient as PDMO.

As for the read only, we can see the disk latency significantly increase in the case of Large dataset, especially for the PDMO solution.  

It is interesting to see how Aurora is penalized not only by the CPU utilization but also by a very high disk latency. 

 

Latency 95pct (lower is better)

chart 2021 09 28 Latency 95 Pct (y axis in ms) OLTP small 20 chart 2021 09 28 Latency 95 Pct (y axis in ms) OLTP large 19 

 

Latency metrics reflect the operation trend, highlighting how the low CPU-resources/Disk-latency affects all solutions, especially in case of large datasets. 

Checking TPC-c (inspired) load (scenario 3S)

Also in this case we have that all the queries are encapsulated in a transaction and in this kind of test the read and write operations are close to being split at the 50% mark, so we expect to see a significant load on disk write operation and for the data replication mechanism.  

Operation/sec

chart 2021 09 28 Reads sec TPCC small 12 chart 2021 09 28 Writes sec TPCC large 14

 

In this scenario PDMO results to be more penalized when the dataset is larger than the available memory. In some way this is expected, given the level of writing is such that the solution pays the cost of the virtual-synchronous replication mechanism used in PXC.

If we check the details we can see:

4 CPUs Large

 4 cpu tpcc large OS cpu

4 cpu tpcc large threads

4 CPUs Disck Latency

4 cpu tpcc large OS disk latency 

As we can see the PDMO node receiving the direct load is not crazy loaded, while the disk latency is higher than RDS with an average of 4ms write and 8ms for read operations.
But that is not enough to justify the delta we have in performance loss. What is preventing the solution from being as efficient as the other two?

PXC flow control

4 cpu tpcc large pxc flow control new

PDMO is using PXC as technology to offer service high availability and full data consistency. This means that the cluster must certify and apply all writes in any node at each commit, with the increase of the write operations this solution also increases the pressure on the replication layer and if any node has a delay in applying the write, that delay will affect the efficiency of the whole cluster. 

In our case we can see that nodes pxc-0 and pxc-2 are on hold for pxc-1 to perform the writes. 

We also have as side effect the increase of the sending queue on the primary node (pxc-0)

4 cpu tpcc large pxc send queue

 

Latency

chart 2021 09 28 Latency 95 Pct (y axis in ms) TPCC small 22 chart 2021 09 28 Latency 95 Pct (y axis in ms) TPCC large 21

Latency is just confirming us the picture we had from the operations.  

What should I pick? 

Before indicating what should be a good solution for what, let us talk about costs.

Costs

To discuss the cost, we need to make some assumptions. 

The first assumption is that we need to calculate the cost by solutions and not by node. This is because we cannot consider a solution with a single node for PDMO or Aurora. To be effective both require their production minimum requirements, which for Aurora is two nodes and for PDMO given is based on PXC 3 nodes. Given that calculating by node is a fictitious artifact, while calculating by solution gives you the real cost.   

The second assumption is that we can have more PDMO solutions running on the same Node. Which means we will have a better relation cost/benefit in utilizing larger nodes and use them to run multiple PDMO solutions. In that case, the only cost that will need to be added is the cost of the attached EBS volume per delivered POD. 

 

Let me provide an example of PDMO calculation. 

If I consider the minimal Node resource requirements, as we did for these tests, I will need to have:

Solution

Node Type

Monthly Cost

PDMO 2 CPU

R5.xlarge

1,609 USD

PDMO 4 CPU

R5.2xlarge

2,274 USD

 

But if we use a larger node that can host multiple PDMO like a r5.4xlarge (16 CPU 128GB) that can host multiple PDMO :

Solution

PDMO instances per node

Monthly Cost - full solution for PDMO

PDMO 2 CPU

3

1,202 USD

PDMO 4 CPU

2

1,803 USD

 

As you can see also if a solution based on r5.4xlarge has higher absolute cost per node, the fact you can run multiple PDMO in a node allows you to reduce the cost in a significant way by solution.   

 

Said that let us summarize the cost of the solutions:

Solution

Node Type

Monthly Cost

Aurora* 2 CPU

db.r5.large

$6,323.30 

Aurora* 4 CPU

db.r5.xlarge

$6,834.30 

RDS 2 CPU

db.r5.large

$1,329.80 

RDS 4 CPU

db.r5.xlarge

$1,753.20 

PDMO 2 CPU (single instance per delivered node)

r5.xlarge

$1,609.20 

PDMO 4 CPU (single instance per delivered node)

r5.2xlarge

$2,274.96 

PDMO 2 CPU (multiple instance per delivered node)

r5.4xlarge

$1,202

PDMO 4 CPU (single instance per delivered node)

r5.4xlarge

$1,803

* For Aurora we had to include an average number of operations based on the test executed. Please refer to: https://calculator.aws/#/createCalculator/AuroraMySQL

 

As you can see PDMO is just a little bit more expensive than RDS when deployed in single instance mode. But it also provides better performance in most cases and always has a higher level of High Availability, given PXC is used in the background. 

There is no discussion if you can use multiple PDMO on larger nodes, in that case the cost goes lower than RDS.

So what to pick

Read-only

Choosing is not only based on performance, but also how efficient the solution we pick is to perform the maintenance of our platform. In this regard both operator and Aurora offer a good level of automation. But PDMO was always performing better than the other two solutions. On top of that Aurora based solutions are more expensive than the others, so in the end, for me, choosing PDMO is the logical thing to do, being ready to eventually do a small scale-up in case I need more resources. This is another advantage of PDMO, I can eventually decide to add fragments of the CPU cycle, without the need to move to a higher and more expensive system.  

OLTP

In this case there is no doubt that PDMO is the solution to go to. Aurora can be seen as a possible replacement given that the RDS solution has a lower level of HA in respect to the other two. But as we know the Aurora costs are higher than any other compared solutions here.

TPCC

RDS is the solution to go to serve the load and save the money, but you will have a lower level of HA. If you are willing to cover the cost Aurora is the solution offering you good performance and high level of High Availability. 

Finally we can say that PDMO was penalized by the replication/certification mechanism in use in PXC but, the significant saving in terms of cost can justify the adoption, especially considering that with a limited scaling up in resources we can gain more traffic served. Scaling will never be as expensive as if we adopt Aurora as a solution.     

Conclusions

Trying to identify an entry point solution for a starting activity is harder than choosing a platform for something already well defined. There is a lot of uncertainty, about the traffic, the kind of operations, the frequency of them, the growth (if any). 

In my opinion there are already so many variables and things that can possibly go wrong, that we should try to adopt, if not the safest solution, the one that gives us a good level of confidence in what we will be able to achieve. 

I was not surprised to see products such as Aurora shine when we have Tpcc like load, but I was pleased to see Percona solution with the operator performing in an admirable way. 

Of course I was not using the settings coming from the vanilla installation, given they are for testing. So if you install PDMO in production you MUST change them  (see here for my cr.yaml) and I was counting on version 1.9.0 at least, without which PDMO is not even in the game. 

But it is obvious that Percona is on the right path, with a long road ahead, but we it is moving in the right direction.

Percona Distribution for MySQL Operatoris still a baby, but is growing fast, and the more we have people using, testing and providing feedback, the fastest Percona will be able to provide software that not only early adopters implement, but also the more conservative ones can use for their production.

References

https://calculator.aws/

Disclaimer 

My blog, my opinions. 

I am not, in any way or aspects, presenting here the official line of the company I am working for.

Comments

If you have comments or suggestions please add them to the linkedin post

When trying to make things better, make our life very complicated.

I was working on a Security Threat Tool script, when I had to learn more about the interaction between static and dynamic privileges in MySQL 8.

Dynamic privileges is a “new” thing added in MySQL 8 to easily extend the privileges definition, and at the same time to provide more granularity. For instance the FLUSH operation now has dedicated Privileges and by scope. 

Dynamic privileges are assigned at runtime. Most of them are active when the server starts. But they can also change in respect to the components or plugin when activated. (https://dev.mysql.com/doc/mysql-security-excerpt/8.0/en/privileges-provided.html#privileges-provided-dynamic)

Static privileges are the classical privileges available in MySQL (https://dev.mysql.com/doc/mysql-security-excerpt/8.0/en/privileges-provided.html#privileges-provided-static)

Those are built into the server and cannot be changed.

So far all is good. If we can give more flexibility to the security mechanism existing in MySQL, well I am all for it.

My first step was to deal with the abuse of SUPER. 

About that the manual comes to help with a section: Migrating Accounts from SUPER to Dynamic Privileges (https://dev.mysql.com/doc/mysql-security-excerpt/8.0/en/privileges-provided.html#dynamic-privileges-migration-from-super) . 

Woo perfect!

Let us play a bit. First let me create a user:

create user secure_test@'localhost' identified by 'secret';
DC2-2(secure_test@localhost) [(none)]>show grants for current_user();
+-------------------------------------------------+
| Grants for secure_test@localhost                |
+-------------------------------------------------+
| GRANT USAGE ON *.* TO `secure_test`@`localhost` |
+-------------------------------------------------+

As you can see I can connect, but have no permissions.

On another terminal with an administrative account, let us do the classical operation to create a DBA:

GRANT ALL on *.* to secure_test@'localhost' WITH GRANT OPTION;

And now I have :

DC2-2(secure_test@localhost) [(none)]>show grants for current_user()\G
*************************** 1. row ***************************
Grants for secure_test@localhost: GRANT SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE, CREATE, DROP, RELOAD, SHUTDOWN, PROCESS, FILE, REFERENCES, INDEX, ALTER, SHOW DATABASES, SUPER, CREATE TEMPORARY TABLES, LOCK TABLES, EXECUTE, REPLICATION SLAVE, REPLICATION CLIENT, CREATE VIEW, SHOW VIEW, CREATE ROUTINE, ALTER ROUTINE, CREATE USER, EVENT, TRIGGER, CREATE TABLESPACE, CREATE ROLE, DROP ROLE ON *.* TO `secure_test`@`localhost` WITH GRANT OPTION
*************************** 2. row ***************************
Grants for secure_test@localhost: GRANT APPLICATION_PASSWORD_ADMIN,AUDIT_ADMIN,BACKUP_ADMIN,BINLOG_ADMIN,BINLOG_ENCRYPTION_ADMIN,CLONE_ADMIN,CONNECTION_ADMIN,ENCRYPTION_KEY_ADMIN,FLUSH_OPTIMIZER_COSTS,FLUSH_STATUS,FLUSH_TABLES,FLUSH_USER_RESOURCES,GROUP_REPLICATION_ADMIN,INNODB_REDO_LOG_ARCHIVE,INNODB_REDO_LOG_ENABLE,PERSIST_RO_VARIABLES_ADMIN,REPLICATION_APPLIER,REPLICATION_SLAVE_ADMIN,RESOURCE_GROUP_ADMIN,RESOURCE_GROUP_USER,ROLE_ADMIN,SERVICE_CONNECTION_ADMIN,SESSION_VARIABLES_ADMIN,SET_USER_ID,SHOW_ROUTINE,SYSTEM_USER,SYSTEM_VARIABLES_ADMIN,TABLE_ENCRYPTION_ADMIN,XA_RECOVER_ADMIN ON *.* TO `secure_test`@`localhost` WITH GRANT OPTION

As you can see I have a bunch of Privileges assigned. 

To be honest, to have to identify exactly what each privilege does and how it interacts with the others is challenging.

Anyhow, the manual tell us:

"For each account identified by the preceding query, determine the operations for which it needs SUPER. Then grant the dynamic privileges corresponding to those operations, and revoke SUPER."

In our case:

revoke SUPER on *.* from secure_test@'localhost';

Which will remove the SUPER privileges, but what else will remain active? 

Let us try one of the easiest things, let us modify the variable super_read_only.

With super I can change the value of the variable without problems , but if I remove the SUPER privileges, what will happen? 

DC2-2(secure_test@localhost) [(none)]>show grants for current_user()\G
*************************** 1. row ***************************
Grants for secure_test@localhost: GRANT SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE, CREATE, DROP, RELOAD, SHUTDOWN, PROCESS, FILE, REFERENCES, INDEX, ALTER, SHOW DATABASES, CREATE TEMPORARY TABLES, LOCK TABLES, EXECUTE, REPLICATION SLAVE, REPLICATION CLIENT, CREATE VIEW, SHOW VIEW, CREATE ROUTINE, ALTER ROUTINE, CREATE USER, EVENT, TRIGGER, CREATE TABLESPACE, CREATE ROLE, DROP ROLE ON *.* TO `secure_test`@`localhost` WITH GRANT OPTION
*************************** 2. row ***************************
Grants for secure_test@localhost: GRANT APPLICATION_PASSWORD_ADMIN,AUDIT_ADMIN,BACKUP_ADMIN,BINLOG_ADMIN,BINLOG_ENCRYPTION_ADMIN,CLONE_ADMIN,CONNECTION_ADMIN,ENCRYPTION_KEY_ADMIN,FLUSH_OPTIMIZER_COSTS,FLUSH_STATUS,FLUSH_TABLES,FLUSH_USER_RESOURCES,GROUP_REPLICATION_ADMIN,INNODB_REDO_LOG_ARCHIVE,INNODB_REDO_LOG_ENABLE,PERSIST_RO_VARIABLES_ADMIN,REPLICATION_APPLIER,REPLICATION_SLAVE_ADMIN,RESOURCE_GROUP_ADMIN,RESOURCE_GROUP_USER,ROLE_ADMIN,SERVICE_CONNECTION_ADMIN,SESSION_VARIABLES_ADMIN,SET_USER_ID,SHOW_ROUTINE,SYSTEM_USER,SYSTEM_VARIABLES_ADMIN,TABLE_ENCRYPTION_ADMIN,XA_RECOVER_ADMIN ON *.* TO `secure_test`@`localhost` WITH GRANT OPTION

As you can see SUPER is gone. 

DC2-2(secure_test@localhost) [(none)]>set global super_read_only=0;
Query OK, 0 rows affected (0.00 sec)

And I can still modify the global variable. WHY?  

The manual says that SYSTEM_VARIABLES_ADMIN from the dynamic privileges allow us to modify "Enables system variable changes at runtime". Well what if I revoke it? 

revoke SYSTEM_VARIABLES_ADMIN on *.* from  secure_test@'localhost';

DC2-2(secure_test@localhost) [(none)]>set global super_read_only=0;
ERROR 1227 (42000): Access denied; you need (at least one of) the SUPER or SYSTEM_VARIABLES_ADMIN privilege(s) for this operation

Great! So in order to really remove/limit super I need to also remove SYSTEM_VARIABLES_ADMIN. But is that all?

Well to make it short, no it is not. 

Checking the manual you can see that SUPER is affecting all these:

  • BINLOG_ADMIN,
  • CONNECTION_ADMIN,
  • ENCRYPTION_KEY_ADMIN,
  • GROUP_REPLICATION_ADMIN,
  • REPLICATION_SLAVE_ADMIN,
  • SESSION_VARIABLES_ADMIN,
  • SET_USER_ID,
  • SYSTEM_VARIABLES_ADMIN

And these are the ones by default. But we can also have others depending on the plugins we have active. 

So in theory to be sure we are removing all SUPER related privileges, we should:

REVOKE SUPER, BINLOG_ADMIN, CONNECTION_ADMIN, ENCRYPTION_KEY_ADMIN, GROUP_REPLICATION_ADMIN, REPLICATION_SLAVE_ADMIN, SESSION_VARIABLES_ADMIN, SET_USER_ID, SYSTEM_VARIABLES_ADMIN on *.* from secure_test@'localhost';

This, should leave us with the equivalent of a user without SUPER:

DC2-2(secure_test@localhost) [(none)]>show grants for current_user()\G
*************************** 1. row ***************************
Grants for secure_test@localhost: GRANT SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE, CREATE, DROP, RELOAD, SHUTDOWN, PROCESS, FILE, REFERENCES, INDEX, ALTER, SHOW DATABASES, CREATE TEMPORARY TABLES, LOCK TABLES, EXECUTE, REPLICATION SLAVE, REPLICATION CLIENT, CREATE VIEW, SHOW VIEW, CREATE ROUTINE, ALTER ROUTINE, CREATE USER, EVENT, TRIGGER, CREATE TABLESPACE, CREATE ROLE, DROP ROLE ON *.* TO `secure_test`@`localhost` WITH GRANT OPTION
*************************** 2. row ***************************
Grants for secure_test@localhost: GRANT APPLICATION_PASSWORD_ADMIN,AUDIT_ADMIN,BACKUP_ADMIN,BINLOG_ENCRYPTION_ADMIN,CLONE_ADMIN,FLUSH_OPTIMIZER_COSTS,FLUSH_STATUS,FLUSH_TABLES,FLUSH_USER_RESOURCES,INNODB_REDO_LOG_ARCHIVE,INNODB_REDO_LOG_ENABLE,PERSIST_RO_VARIABLES_ADMIN,REPLICATION_APPLIER,RESOURCE_GROUP_ADMIN,RESOURCE_GROUP_USER,ROLE_ADMIN,SERVICE_CONNECTION_ADMIN,SHOW_ROUTINE,SYSTEM_USER,TABLE_ENCRYPTION_ADMIN,XA_RECOVER_ADMIN ON *.* TO `secure_test`@`localhost` WITH GRANT OPTION

CONCLUSIONS

In this first blog we have started to explore the usage of Dynamic privileges, and what we need to do to remove the SUPER privilege. 

Nevertheless, the list above is still a bit chaotic and unsafe. We still have SHUTDOWN or RELOAD or FILE, all of them are insecure and should be assigned with great care. In the next article we will see how to deal with Dynamic and Static privileges by Role and we also try to have clearer how they affect one another.

More Articles ...

  1. MySQL Static and Dynamic privileges (Part2)
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